作为金融科技领域的一项重要技术创新，区块链被视为构建未来互联网业态的核心关键技术，可实现互联网从信息互联到价值互联的升级。事实上，区块链是一个采用共识机制、去中心化、分布式的共享账本或数据库，通过密码学加密技术，保证这一账本或数据库的全网公开、透明的一致性，其分布式组网方式以及加密不可撤回及篡改的特性，保证了加密信息可以用点对点的方式，安全、保密地进行快捷传输和交易。尽管目前区块链技术尚处于发展的初级阶段，但作为去中心化记账平台的核心技术，区块链被认为在金融、征信、教学、医疗、物联网、经济贸易、智能设备等众多领域都拥有广泛的应用前景。
As an important technological innovation in the field of financial science and technology, block chains are considered a central and key technology for building the future of the Internet, enabling the upgrading of the Internet from information interconnection to value interconnection. In fact, block chains are a core technology that uses consensus mechanisms, decentralized, distributed shared books or databases, ensuring full web-based, transparent consistency of the book or database through cryptographic encryption techniques, distributed web-based approaches and encrypted, non-revocable and tampering features, which guarantee a point-to-point approach to rapid transmission and trading of encrypted information. While block-chain technologies are still at an early stage of development, as a platform for decentralizing accounts, sector chains are considered to have wide application prospects in a wide range of areas such as finance, letters, teaching, medical, network of matter, economic trade, smart equipment, etc. .
区块链基础架构及关键技术
block chain infrastructure and key technology
区块链是基于密码学原理而不是基于信用，使得互联网上任何达成一致的交易双方直接支付，从而不需要第三方信用中介机构的参与。本质上，区块链是一个分布式账本，一种通过去中心化、去信任的方式集体维护一个可靠数据库的技术方案，是分布式数据存储、点对点传输、共识机制、加密算法等计算机技术的新型应用模式。
block chains are based on cryptography and not on credit, allowing for direct payment by the parties to any agreed transaction on the Internet and thus do not require the involvement of third-party credit intermediaries. In essence, block chains are a distributed account, a technical programme for collective maintenance of a reliable database through decentralization and detrust, and are new applications of computer technology such as distributed data storage, point-to-point transmission, consensus mechanisms, encryption algorithms, etc..
（一）区块链的基础架构和模式。区块链系统由数据层、网络层、共识层、激励层、合约层和应用层组成，包含了从底层数据结构到共识机制到顶层应用协议的众多内容。其中，数据层封装了底层数据区块以及相关的数据加密和时间戳等技术；网络层则包括分布式组网机制、数据传播机制和数据验证机制等；共识层主要封装网络节点的各类共识算法；激励层将经济因素集成到区块链技术体系中来，主要包括经济激励的发行机制和分配机制等；合约层主要封装各类脚本、算法和智能合约，是区块链可编程特性的基础；应用层则封装了区块链的各种应用场景和案例。区块链系统每层分别完成一项核心功能，各层之间互相配合，实现一个去中心化的信任机制。可以说，区块链技术最具代表性的创新点即为基于时间戳的链式区块结构、分布式节点的共识机制、基于共识算力的经济激励和灵活可编程的智能合约。
按参与对象范围的不同，区块链可粗略区分为公有链、联盟链和私有链。划分的标准不是参与节点的多少，而是整个系统中记账节点的门槛和记账权的分散度。 The blocks chain can be broadly distinguished from the public, union and private chains depending on the scope of the object involved. The criteria for classification are not the number of participating nodes, but rather the threshold for recording nodes and the dispersion of rights of account in the system as a whole. （二）区块链的核心和关键技术。1.共识机制。机器共识机制即区块链节点就区块信息达成全网一致共识的机制，是区块链的核心理论和技术。FLP不可能定理已经证明，在存在故障进程的异步系统中不存在有限时间内达成“共识”理论解。这也意味着，理论上，在存在“女巫”节点的异步网络环境中，不可能在有限时间内有达成一致共识的精确算法，因而必须寻找其可行的“工程解”，而目前出现的在特定环境中的各类共识机制就是求解“工程解”具体算法。区块链常用的共识机制主要包括：PoW（Proof of Work，工作量证明）、PoS（Proof of Stake，权益证明）、DPoS（Delegate Proof of Stake，股份授权证明）等。 (ii) core and key technologies of the block chain. 1. Consensus mechanisms. The mechanism of machine consensus, i.e. block chain nodes, is the core theory and technology of block chains. The FLP cannot dictate that there is no “consensual” theoretical solution within the time frame of the hesitant system. This also means that, theoretically, in the context of the hesitant network where the “witch” nodes exist, it is not possible to have a precise algorithm for reaching consensus within a limited time, and therefore it is necessary to find a viable “engineering decalation” of the block information. 通常，区块链应用需要根据不同场景而选择不同共识机制，如合规监管方面是否支持超级权限节点对全网节点及数据进行监管、交易达成共识被确认的性能效率、共识过程中耗费的CPU及网络输入输出和存储等计算机资源、防攻击防欺诈的容错能力等。事实上，只要合适的机制能保证记录的可靠可追溯、不同节点具有相对平等的权利，则机制的不同并不改变区块链的本质。可以说，共识算法的创新将是推动区块链产业化的重要力量。 Usually, block-chain applications need to select different consensus mechanisms based on different scenarios, such as whether the regulatory aspects of compliance support super-competence nodes for the regulation of full network nodes and data, the proven performance efficiency of the transaction, the cost of consensus-building and computer resources such as network input output and storage, and the ability to protect against fraud. In fact, differences in mechanisms do not change the essence of the block chain as long as appropriate mechanisms guarantee reliable traceability of records and relative equality of rights of different nodes. It can be said that innovation in consensus algorithms will be an important force for the industrialization of the block chain. 2.数据存储。在区块链技术中，数据以区块的方式永久储存。区块按时间顺序逐个先后生成并连接成链，每一个区块记录了创建期间发生的所有交易信息。区块的数据结构一般分为区块头（header）和区块体（body）。其中，区块头用于链接到前一个区块并且通过时间戳特性保证历史数据的完整性；区块体则包含了经过验证的、区块创建过程中产生的所有交易信息。 2. In block chain technology, data are stored permanently in blocks. Blocks are created and linked in chronological order. Each block records all transactions that occurred during their creation. Block data structures are generally divided into blockheads (header) and block blocks (body). 3.网络协议。区块链网络协议一般采用P2P协议，确保同一网络中的每台计算机彼此对等，各个节点共同提供网络服务，不存在任何“特殊”节点。不同的区块链系统会根据需要制定独自的P2P网络协议，比如比特币有比特币网络协议，以太坊也有自己的网络协议。 3. Network protocol. Block-link network protocols generally use P2P protocols to ensure that each computer in the same network is reciprocal. Each node provides network services together. There are no "special" nodes. Different block-chain systems develop separate P2P network protocols as needed, such as Bitcoin has a bitcoin network protocol, and Taiku has its own network protocol. 4.加密算法。散列算法也叫数据摘要或者哈希算法，其原理是将一段信息转换成一个固定长度并具备以下特点的字符串：如果某两段信息是相同的，那么字符也是相同的；即使两段信息十分相似，但只要是不同的，那么字符串将会十分杂乱随机并且两个字符串之间完全没有关联。本质上，散列算法的目的不是为了“加密”而是为了抽取“数据特征”，当然也可以把给定数据的散列值理解为该数据的“指纹信息”。典型的散列算法包括MD5、SHA1/SHA256和SM3，其中SHA2和SM3这两种算法效率和安全性大致相当且应用较为广泛。 4. The hash algorithm is also called a data digest or a Hashi algorithm, whose rationale is to convert a message into a string with a fixed length and the following characteristics: if one or two paragraphs of information are the same, the characters are the same; even if the two paragraphs are very similar, the string will be very confusingly random and completely unconnected with the two strings. In essence, the hash algorithm is not intended to be an “encrypted” but to extract “data characteristics” but, of course, the hash value given to the given data can also be understood as “print information” for that data. The typical hash algorithms include MD5, SHA1/SHA256 and SM3, of which the two algorithms are fairly efficient and safe and are broadly applied . 非对称加密算法由对应的一对唯一性密钥（即公开密钥和私有密钥）组成的加密方法。任何获悉用户公钥的人都可用用户的公钥对信息进行加密与用户实现安全信息交互。由于公钥与私钥之间存在的依存关系，只有用户本身才能解密该信息，任何未受授权用户甚至信息的发送者都无法将此信息解密。 5.隐私保护。目前区块链上传输和存储的数据都是公开可见的，仅通过“伪匿名”的方式对交易双方进行一定的隐私保护。对于某些涉及大量的商业机密和利益的业务场景来说，数据的暴露不符合业务规则和监管要求。目前，业界普遍认为零知识证明、环签名和同态加密等技术比较有希望解决区块链的隐私问题。 6.智能合约。智能合约可视作一段部署在区块链上可自动运行的程序，其涵盖的范围包括编程语言、编译器、虚拟机、事件、状态机、容错机制等。虚拟机是区块链中智能合约的运行环境。虚拟机不仅被沙箱封装起来，事实上它被完全隔离。也就是说运行在虚拟机内部的代码不能接触到网络、文件系统或者其他进程。甚至智能合约之间也只能进行有限的调用。本质上，智能合约是一段程序，存在出错的可能性，甚至会引发严重问题或连锁反应，因此需要做好充分的容错机制，通过系统化的手段，结合运行环境隔离，确保合约在有限时间内按预期执行。 区块链在金融领域中的应用探索 金融领域是区块链技术的重要应用领域。区块链本质上是一个去中心化分布式账本，相当于一种全民参与记账的方式，在当今科技驱动金融发展的时代，区块链成为最新的科技驱动力量。区块链技术为解决经济和金融等领域的信任问题，提供了底层支持技术，其拥有的高可靠性、简化流程、交易可追踪、节约成本、减少错误以及改善数据质量等特性，使其有可能再次重塑全球金融业的基础框架，尤其是信用传递交换机制，并加速金融创新与产品迭代速度，极大提高金融运行效率。区块链在金融领域的主要应用包括以下几个方面： The financial field is an important application of block-chain technology. The block-chain is essentially a decentralised ledger, equivalent to a participatory accounting approach, which in the present era of science and technology-driven financial development is the latest science and technology-driven force. The block-chain technology addresses trust issues in economic and financial areas by providing low-level support technologies with high reliability, simplified processes, transaction traceability, cost savings, reduction of errors, and improved data quality that make it possible to re-establish the basic framework of the global financial industry, particularly credit transfer mechanisms, and to accelerate financial innovation and product rotation and significantly improve financial efficiency. The key applications of the block-chain in the financial field include the following: （一）数字货币。以比特币为代表的数字货币是区块链技术最广泛也是最成功的运用。与传统纸币相比，发行数字货币能有效降低货币发行、流通的成本，提升经济交易活动的便利性和透明度。因此，在互联网时代，货币从实物形态到纸币再到数字货币是一较为确定的趋势。2015年起，英国、俄罗斯、欧洲央行均表示正着手研究区块链技术，中国央行也在大力推进数字货币，并认为区块链技术是可供选择的技术方案之一。可以预见，央行发行数字货币是历史趋势，而区块链诸多技术特点能较好满足可靠、可追溯，且有利于执行精准的货币政策的潜力。而一旦央行推出基于区块链的数字货币，将对现行金融体系产生广泛而深远的影响。 (i) digital currency. Digital currency, represented by bitcoin, is the most extensive and successful application of block-chain technology. The issuance of digital currency can effectively reduce the cost of issuing and circulating money and enhance the ease and transparency of economic transactions compared to traditional banknotes. （二）证券交易。对于传统证券发行，中间人往往控制着市场，比如国内证券海外上市首先要经过国内证监会审核，然后国外交易所审核，审核后在一级市场发行，二级市场交易，繁复冗长的流程往往导致发行成本的增加。而区块链的诞生很有可能使得全球的资产模式从先审核后发行变成先发行后审核，从而使得证券发行免去诸多中间人环节。区块链技术通过证券的去中心化交易，不仅可以帮助显著削减发行、追踪及交易加密证券的成本，而且能够避免传统证券市场经常发生的操纵行为。基于区块链技术的去中心化交易系统（如BitShares），既具备传统交易所系统功能，同时又不依靠任何中心化机构或服务器来自动运行，系统内所有交易资产或产品可由任何人创建并交易。当然，这也不可避免地带来监管困难的问题。由于运行的计算机及参与交易的人可能遍布世界各地，任何人可发行任何证券资产，使得司法管辖权难以界定；同时，随着资产规模的不断扩大，其管理也将变得越来越难。 （三）票据市场。对于票据市场，区块链的应用将是未来的核心。一方面，以区块链技术为基础实现票据市场的点对点交易，能够打破票据中介的现有功能，实现票据价值传递的去中介化；另一方面，区块链的信息不可篡改性也使得票据一旦完成交易，将不会存在赖账现象，可避免“一票多卖”、打款背书不同步等行为，有效防范票据市场风险。另外，区块链交易记录前后附带相连的时间戳，也提供了透明化可信任的追溯途径，从而有效降低监管的审计成本。当然，除了票据之外，诸如场外股权、债券转让等其他非场内交易性金融资产，利用区块链账本的安全透明、不可篡改及易于跟踪等特性，对其登记、发行或管理进行数字化实现，往往也能促进市场的高效安全运行。与前所述类似，区块链应用于场外证券类资产登记发行还存在法律合规、投资者匿名监管及数字证券与真实世界价值对接等问题。 （四）支付清算。区块链分布式记账技术可有效拓展现代支付清算机制，使得银行间、交易所等机构的管理成本大大减少且支付清算的效率得到显著提升。当前，商业贸易、证券交易的支付清算一般需要借助于银行，传统的交易方式要经过开户行、对手开户行、境内清算组织、国际清算组织、境外银行等，过程中每一机构都有自己的账务系统，彼此之间需要建立代理关系，互有授信额度。同时，每笔交易需要在本银行记录，还要与交易对手进行清算、对账等，导致速度慢、成本高。与传统支付体系相比，通过区块链技术进行支付是由交易双方直接完成，不涉及中间机构，即使网络中部分结点瘫痪也不影响整个系统运行。基于区块链技术构建一套通用的分布式银行间金融交易协议，为接入银行提供跨境、任意币种实时支付清算服务，将会使得跨境支付更加便捷高效且成本低廉。 (iv) payment settlement. The chain-based accounting technology effectively expands modern payment clearing mechanisms, leading to significant reductions in the management costs of institutions such as banks, exchanges, etc., and to significant improvements in the efficiency of payment liquidations. Currently, commercial trade, settlement of securities transactions generally need to be done through banks, with traditional modes of dealing through the depositary, counterparty, internal liquidation organizations, the International Organization for Settlements, offshore banks, etc., in which each institution has its own accounting system and requires inter-agency correspondent relationships and mutual credit lines. At the same time, each transaction requires a bank-to-bank record-keeping and reconciliation with counterpartys, resulting in slow and high costs, compared to the traditional payment system, payment through block-to-chain technology is done directly by the parties, not involving intermediary institutions, internal liquidation organizations, the International Organization for Settlements and offshore closure of parts of the network will not affect the entire system. （五）客户识别。全球金融机构都要受到政府严格监管，其中最重要的一条即金融机构在向客户提供服务时必须履行客户识别（KYC）责任。传统方式下，KYC是非常耗时的流程，缺少自动验证消费者身份的技术，因此无法高效地开展工作。在传统金融体系中，不同机构间的用户身份信息和交易记录无法实现一致、高效的跟踪，使得监管机构的工作难以落到实处。对此，区块链技术可实现数字化身份信息的安全、可靠管理，在保证客户隐私的前提下提升客户识别的效率并降低成本。 (v) customer identification. Global financial institutions are subject to strict government regulation, the most important of which is that financial institutions must fulfil their customer identification (KYC) responsibilities when providing services to customers. KYC is a time-consuming process in the traditional way, and lacks the technology to automatically authenticate consumers, which makes it impossible to work efficiently. In the traditional financial system, user identification information and transaction records between different agencies are not consistently and efficiently tracked, making it difficult for regulators to get their work done. 趋势及展望 trends and prospects 目前，区块链在理论研究和应用实践上还是两张皮。如果将实现比特币理念的技术——去信任环境下通过机器实现共识（即拜占庭容错共识）作为区块链技术核心，则区块链在技术和理论上还远未达到大规模应用阶段。如果将添加哈希（hash）值字段的分布式账本技术（DLT）（非拜占庭容错共识环境）称为区块链，则这种上世纪90年代就已出现的技术也谈不上什么高新和神秘，只能说是新瓶装旧酒。另外，区块链也并非仅仅只是“区块+链”的数据结构。随着区块链技术的发展，特别是数据层的技术和底层拓扑结构的不断创新，当前，已经涌现出诸如有向无环图(Directed acyclic graph)和哈希图(Hash Graph)等新兴的区块“链”数据结构，这些新数据结构将以单一链条为基础的区块链技术的范畴拓展为基于图结构的区块“链”或分布式账本。 At present, the block chain is still two skins in theoretical research and application practice. If the technology to achieve the Bitcoin concept — to achieve consensus through machine (i.e., the Byzantine Conversation) is used as the technical core of the block chain, the block chain is far from being used at a large scale in technology and theory. If the distributed account technology (DLT) (an unbelieving consensus environment) is called a block chain, the technology that has emerged in the 1990s is not much new and mysterious, but only a new bottle of wine. Moreover, the block chain is not merely a “block + chain” data structure. 区块链技术还处于发展的早期阶段，将其推广应用于各行业尤其是金融领域尚存在诸多问题难点。首先，缺乏统一技术标准。区块链的底层技术并不成熟且尚未统一，大多数平台在性能安全性方面还有所欠缺。其次，实践方面缺少可靠案例。尽管目前最大的区块链应用——比特币最高市值超过3000亿美元，但若承载每天上万亿美元的大规模交易，还需要对区块链技术做进一步测试。其三，平台重置成本较高。对传统金融机构而言，区块链技术应用的基础建设投资成本过高，且将原有业务迁移至新平台的风险较大，机构推倒重来意愿并不强。最后，人才资源匮乏。市场缺乏既懂金融又懂区块链的跨界人才，而国内区块链技术储备与创新以及相关产业发展需要大量的综合型人才。 block chain technology is still in its early stages of development, and there are many difficulties in applying it to industries, particularly in the financial field. First, there are no uniform technical standards. The bottom-level technology of the block chain is not mature and uniform. Most platforms are not yet sufficiently secure. Second, there is a lack of reliable examples of practice. Although the largest sector-chain application — bitcoin is currently worth more than $300 billion, large-scale transactions amounting to trillion dollars per day will require further testing of block-chain technology. 为此，政府部门应紧密跟踪美国、欧盟、英国、日本等发达国家和地区对推动区块链发展的政策措施，同时结合我国区块链技术研究和应用发展现状，及时出台区块链技术和产业发展扶持政策，重点支持关键技术攻关、系统解决方案研发和公共服务平台建设等。鼓励重点企业、科研高校和用户单位加强联合，加快共识机制、可编程合约、分布式存储、数字签名等核心关键技术攻关。支持有条件企业特别是大企业加大研发投入力度，构建区块链通用开发平台，降低区块链技术研发和应用成本。加快人才培养体系建设。鼓励并支持重点高校设置区块链专业课程，推动重点企业和高校联合，建设区块链人才实训基地，加快培养区块链专业技术人才。另外，相关监管部门应密切关注区块链技术的发展动向，加强研究和技术储备，及时建立并完善区块链产业监管规则和技术应用标准，防止出现技术滥用及野蛮生长给金融运行带来额外风险。 作为未来金融科技的底层技术，区块链具有很强的战略意义。在未来金融科技探索上，国内金融业应加强顶层设计，加快推动区块链技术研发、实践和应用，积极参与区块链金融的国际合作和国际区块链联盟及标准的创设，以争取国际金融战略制高点，提升我国金融核心竞争力，让金融更好地为实体经济服务。
信用中国 |
2021-08-16
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